The Spanish failed to create a solid system of overseas administration, which would combine loyalty to local inhabitants and respect for natural resources. Madrid’s overly brutal exploitation of its possessions led to the gradual collapse of the Spanish colonial system. The first serious blow to Spanish rule on the other side of the Atlantic was the War of Independence that broke out in Latin America in the early 19th century. Although the Latin American freedom fighters had their reasons for overthrowing Spanish rule (Spanish domination, exploitation of peasants, poverty, etc.), it was also behind these events that England supported the rebels and later imposed no less harsh rules.

In America, meanwhile, industry was booming and required a steady infusion of new raw materials and financial resources. Huge enterprises and land holdings sprang up. Native American resistance had already been crushed, and all land on the North American continent had become white property. Americans were very interested in the Caribbean islands, including Cuba, for a variety of reasons:

• Naval bases could be established here to guarantee the security of the U.S. Atlantic coast and maritime trade;
• Cuba covered the North American isthmus and could be a good defense for the future Panama Canal;
• In the public mind and in the speeches of populist politicians, incorporating Cuba and other nearby islands into the United States seemed a natural and logical act. The struggle for territories in the Western Hemisphere of at least minimal interest to Washington was directly derived from the Monroe Doctrine.

Of course, the island was a coveted piece for the United States, and the Cubans were opposed to Spanish rule. Back in the 1860s, the locals managed to establish republican rule for a while, but then the Spaniards still managed to bring the rebellious island to obedience. But resistance continued, with partisan warfare against the Spanish crown going on in Cuba since 1895. The Spanish moved a large military contingent to Cuba (about 150 thousand people), but the soldiers could not cope. American volunteers also came to the island to support the rebels. More and more voices were heard in the United States calling on the government to intervene in the situation in Cuba, which happened in the late winter of 1898.

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On February 15, 1898, the American battleship Maine exploded in Havana Bay, a tragedy that killed 266 sailors. The U.S. authorities blamed the attack on the Spanish side and declared war on Madrid. Only 12 years later, it was proved that the tragedy was caused by the spontaneous ignition of the gunpowder in the holds. Today many researchers agree that the destruction of the battleship was a premeditated provocation by America. It is proved by the fact that it was not profitable for the weakened Spain to unleash war with such a strong enemy, and also by the fact that during the explosion, almost all the members of the officer personnel, who for some reason were at the time on the stern, almost unscathed during the disaster, survived.

Preparation for War and Plans of the Parties

Waging war was an extremely difficult task for Spain. The Spanish soldiers who arrived in Cuba were severely exhausted by guerrilla sabotage and disease. Food and weapons were in short supply, discipline was extremely poor, and the actions of the different units were not coordinated. It was very expensive and time-consuming to bring new forces and supplies for the land army across the ocean. That is why the Navy (which was much inferior to the U.S. Navy) was responsible for the bulk of the fighting in the war against the United States. Spain had no forces or finances to support the ground units operating in Cuba, so the soldiers were left to their own devices. The United States, in turn, easily transferred people, supplies and weapons to Cuba from the East Coast. Soldiers and sailors were well-trained, and America’s material resources made it possible to wage even a long war without much damage to the economy.

Madrid tried to prevent the war and offer an armistice. But Washington demanded an immediate declaration of Cuban independence, which the Spaniards could not accept.

The U.S. plan was to blockade the island from the sea and, with the help of a land army, take control of it. Initially, the U.S. was going to seize the other Caribbean islands under the auspices of the Spanish crown. But despite Spain’s weakness, there was a danger of attacking American ports on the Atlantic coast. The Americans did consider that Spain, though weak and impoverished, was still considered a major maritime power. Therefore, the United States preferred to confine itself to the capture of Cuba, where a flotilla led by Rear Admiral William Thomas Sampson advanced.

Spain sent a squadron based in the Cape Verde Islands (Atlantic coast of Africa) to Cuba, led by Admiral Pasquale Servera y Topete. Other ships under repair were to depart later directly from Spain itself. Cervera soberly assessed the condition of the Spanish fleet. He noted the lack of shells and fuel, the high degree of wear and tear of the ships, the failure of the artillery and unreliability of the hull, so he did not want to immediately enter into confrontation, and to wait until all the Spanish ships will be fully ready for the expedition and assemble together. The admiral did not even have accurate maps of the West Indies (as the islands of the Caribbean were called in those days) and a general plan of action. It is quite possible that the purchase of additional ships and more meticulous preparation for the expedition would have allowed Spain to change the entire course of the war. But the headquarters meeting in Madrid rushed the admiral and forced him to march to Cuba earlier than he should have.

The United States closely monitored Cervera’s movements and did not allow him to resupply coal in the ports lying in the path of the Spanish squadron.

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On May 1 the first battle of the war took place: off the Philippine Islands, then also belonging to Spain, a battle between Admiral Devey’s American squadron and Admiral Monteno’s Spanish flotilla took place. In a few hours all the Spanish ships were destroyed by heavy artillery fire. The Americans were able to land their landing in the Philippines without any resistance, and in August, to make the islands part of their colonial empire. Not only did the locals not resist this, but they themselves actively fought the Spanish soldiers who remained in the Philippines.

On May 19, Cervera arrived in the port of Santiago, on the south coast of Cuba. Marshall Blanca, commander of the Spanish land forces, was already here. The American intelligence service, which had been working so diligently, failed this time, and Sampson did not learn of the arrival of Cervera’s squadron until a week later. In a hurry, measures began to be taken to deal with Cervera. American paratroopers began to move to the south coast. The landing took place in disarray and turmoil. Had Cervera ventured to strike the Americans at this very moment, he would have succeeded in inflicting great damage on the enemy army. However, the Spaniards were wary of starting a fight, so they ended up stranded with the fleet in port.

Marshal Blanca insisted on breaking the blockade immediately. Locked in the city along with the land army, the sailors had no control over anything, while the food supplies were running low. To make matters worse, the squadron that was to leave Spain was delayed (it later transpired that Admiral de la Camara, the leader of this flotilla, had been unable to get enough coal and had been forced to take his ships back to Cadiz).

On July 2, Cervera decided on a desperate move and took his ships (4 armored cruisers and 2 destroyers) out of port to engage the American flotilla (4 armored cruisers and 1 armored cruiser). As in the Battle of the Philippine Islands, the outcome of the battle was determined by American artillery. While Cervera attempted to maintain a unified battle order, the American ships performed a variety of maneuvers that allowed them to take the most convenient positions for firing. The Spanish ships were destroyed one by one by a flood of shells, causing little or no damage to the enemy squadron. The loss of life amounted to about 400 men and another 1800 sailors and officers, including Cervera, were taken prisoner. Madrid had no choice but to begin negotiations for peace.

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• The U.S. received the former Spanish colonies of Puerto Rico, the Philippines, and Guam in exchange for $20 million;
• Cuba was formally declared independent, but in fact, American influence was established there; very soon, a U.S. military base appeared in Guantanamo;
• Spain paid $25 million to the United States.

Immediately after obtaining the coveted territories, the Americans began a determined fight against the former allies – the rebels who had once opposed the Spanish crown. The end of this, in general, small and not the most eventful war entailed sweeping changes. The old colonial empire fell and a new, stronger and more powerful empire emerged.

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