The treaty ceded much of the Mexican territory to the United States, including what is now California, parts of Arizona, Nevada, New Mexico, and other areas. In addition, the treaty set the Rio Grande as the official boundary between the two countries. As a consequence of the war, however, both countries were changed in terms of their respective national identities, geopolitical alignments, and border regions. Mexico, in particular, sought to redefine its relationship with both the United States and Latin America following the war. The legacy of U.S. – Mexican War includes increased tensions between the two countries over the border region, and the

Manifest Destiny and Territorial Disputes

The roots of the U.S.-Mexico War can be traced back to the concept of Manifest Destiny, a belief prevalent in 19th-century America that it was the nation’s destiny to expand westward to the Pacific Ocean. The acquisition of Texas, formerly a part of Mexico, by the United States in 1845 intensified tensions between the two countries. Mexico disputed the annexation, considering it a violation of their sovereignty. This territorial dispute became a crucial factor in the escalation towards war.

Road to Conflict: The Spark and Declaration

The spark that ignited the U.S.-Mexico War was the border dispute between Texas and Mexico. In 1846, a clash between Mexican and American troops along the Rio Grande resulted in casualties on both sides. This incident, known as the Thornton Affair, led to the U.S. declaring war on Mexico. On May 13, 1846, President James K. Polk delivered a message to Congress, justifying the war and emphasizing American grievances against Mexico.

Major Battles and Campaigns

The U.S.-Mexico War witnessed several significant battles and military campaigns. One of the most famous was the Battle of Buena Vista in February 1847, where American forces led by General Zachary Taylor successfully repelled a larger Mexican army. The Battle of Cerro Gordo in April 1847, led by General Winfield Scott, resulted in a decisive American victory and opened the path to Mexico City. The fall of Mexico City in September 1847 marked a turning point, leading to negotiations and ultimately the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo.

Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo and Consequences

The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, signed on February 2, 1848, ended the U.S.-Mexico War. Under the treaty, Mexico recognized the Rio Grande as the southern border of Texas and ceded a vast territory known as the Mexican Cession, comprising present-day California, Nevada, Utah, Arizona, New Mexico, Colorado, and parts of Wyoming. The United States agreed to pay $15 million in compensation to Mexico and assumed the debts owed by the Mexican government to American citizens. The war and the subsequent treaty significantly reshaped the geographical and political landscape of both nations.

Legacy and Impact

The U.S.-Mexico War left a profound and lasting impact on both the United States and Mexico. For the United States, the war represented a significant step in the fulfillment of Manifest Destiny, expanding its territory to the Pacific Ocean. It also fueled debates over the issue of slavery and its expansion into the newly acquired territories. In Mexico, the war resulted in the loss of substantial territories and intensified political divisions. The conflict served as a catalyst for social and political reforms in Mexico, leading to a reevaluation of the country’s relationship with the United States.

The U.S.-Mexico War was a pivotal chapter in the history of both nations. Fueled by territorial disputes and the concept of Manifest Destiny, the conflict resulted in significant territorial changes and had far-reaching consequences. It shaped the border between the United States and Mexico, impacted political and social developments in both countries, and sparked debates and discussions that continue to resonate to this day. Understanding the U.S.-Mexico War provides valuable insights into the complexities of historical relationships and the ongoing challenges of border issues and ideologies.

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During the war, a group of politicians emerged in Mexico who opposed the power of Santa Anna. After the president fled, they set out to liberalize the internal life of the country.

General Taylor, who became a true national hero, was able to win the presidential election of 1849. The U.S. confidently continued its world expansion. Mexico began to consolidate its position and develop the northern states to avoid new territorial losses in the future.

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Perhaps the main reason for the outbreak of hostilities was the aggressive U.S. foreign policy, the main purpose of which was the maximum expansion of the state’s borders. In addition to the messianic ideas of the Protestant Anglo-Saxons, who saw themselves as an exceptional people, the struggle for territory also had economic significance. Cotton was the main production of the Southern states. Irrational use of the land was depleting the soil, so Southern planters were in constant need of acquiring new acreage.

In the 1820s the Mexican government issued a law that allowed the purchase at low prices of land in Texas and Coahuila. The favorable terms began to attract American migrants. By 1835, the number of Americans living in Texas was more than five times the number of Mexicans themselves. Very soon the Anglo-Saxon population of Texas began to insist on independence of these lands from Mexico.

One of the main foreign policy objectives of the United States was to establish itself on the Pacific coast. The most convenient point for controlling coastal waters was Mexican California. Therefore, one of America’s goals in the coming war was to annex that state.

In the late 1820s, slavery was banned in Mexico, which angered American planters living in Texas.

Relations between the two states also deteriorated because of the radical, nationalistic sentiments that prevailed in both the United States and Mexico. The descendants of the Spanish conquistadors who had settled in Mexico looked down on the Yanks as cowards, easy money seekers, and braggarts. And Americans considered Mexicans racially inferior and incapable of democracy and governing such a big state.

Texas for the first time declared the independence in 1836. This event was preceded by active work of the American Congress and presidential administration. The USA supported (including military) immigrants in Texas and the articles about necessity of annexation of the Mexican state more and more often appeared in the American press.

Certainly not all Americans supported an aggressive policy toward Mexico. Most northern industrialists and abolitionists opposed the expansion of the Southwest, calling interference in Mexican internal affairs a “plantation-slave crusade. Opponents of the annexation of Texas were found in Congress itself, mostly members of the Whig party, but in small numbers. The majority of the congressmen stood for military aid to Texas and for sending 10 thousand volunteers to the South to guard the border.

On September 1, 1836, Texas held a plebiscite in which the majority voted to join America. A radical party came to power in the state, using racist slogans in its rhetoric as well as advocating the preservation of slavery and immediate secession from Mexico. After the rebellion in Texas began, the Mexican government attempted to reincorporate the state by force of arms. But the American settlers, supported by Washington, D.C., were able to fight back against the large Mexican army.

In 1837, President Andrew Jackson signed a bill recognizing Texas’ independence. From that moment on, Texas formally became a small independent state, but in fact became part of the United States.

After Jackson’s term as president expired, the U.S. administration abandoned the Texas issue for a time. The Texas problem was raised again only in 1844, when James Polk, a representative of the pro-war Democrats, became president. Polk’s expansionist policy met with the support of broad segments of the population. The expansion of American territory at the expense of Mexican land became almost the most important direction of the foreign policy of the new president.

In December 1845, Texas was inaugurated as a part of the United States. At about the same time Polk attempted to begin negotiations with Mexico for the purchase of California and New Mexico, and also single-handedly declared the Rio Grande River the new U.S.-Mexican border, thereby cutting off some territory from Mexico. All this was met with indignation on the Mexican side and led to the severing of diplomatic relations. The U.S. leadership and the American public were belligerent and were preparing for an armed conflict. In spite of the fact that on the part of the U.S. the impending war was openly robbery, most considered the aggression against Mexico as quite just.

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Immediately after the official declaration of war, U.S. troops began a large-scale invasion of Mexican territory on two fronts:

• To the east of the country, toward Monterrey and Mexico City;
• To the west, toward California.

Since the northern regions of Mexico were sparsely populated, the army moved very quickly. California’s independence was declared as early as mid-June, but patriotic residents of the state revolted. As a result, the conquest of California dragged on for six months. Only at the beginning of 1847 were the Americans able to subdue Los Angeles and San Diego.

In the northeast the situation was also unfortunate for the Mexicans. They suffered heavy losses in their attempts to attack Fort Brown. The battles of Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma in early May were the bloodiest, after which the Americans seized the strategic initiative, crossed the Rio Grande River without much difficulty, and entered deep into Mexico.

From the beginning, Mexico had a hard enough time fighting the U.S. army. The state did not have the economic and technical capacity of the United States, and the political situation inside Mexico itself was unstable. In 1845 President Lopez de Santa Anna, whose policy in recent years had become excessively rigid and undemocratic, was expelled from the country.

After Mexico’s first defeats, Santa Anna wrote two letters. The first was addressed to the new Mexican president, Farias, in which Santa Anna asked permission to return to his native country to confront the Americans with arms in his hands. A second letter was sent to Washington, in which Santa Anna promised to give the Americans the disputed territories if they would help him return to Mexico and become president again. But in the end, once in Mexico, Santa Anna did not fulfill any of his promises: He overthrew Farias, seized power in the country and led the fight against the United States.

Meanwhile, General Taylor’s advance deep into Mexico slowed slightly. The soldiers of his army were suffering from numerous tropical diseases. However, this did not prevent the general from reaching the city of Monterrey in September 1846 and launching a siege. General Pedro de Ampudia, who commanded the defense of the city, retreated from President Santa Anna’s original plan and tried to fight back the American army as early as the approaches to the city, but the battle was lost. Taylor, at the cost of heavy losses, managed to break behind the walls of Monterey. The defenders did not want to surrender for a long time, fighting for every house, but eventually, Ampudia was forced to admit defeat and surrender the city.

In the winter of 1847, Santa Anna raised an army of 20,000 and personally advanced on Taylor. He almost succeeded in breaking American resistance at the Battle of Buena Vista, but was driven back by American artillery. Thus General Taylor was able to gain control of all of northeastern Mexico.

At about the same time General Winfield Scott’s landing party was moved into Mexico, whose task was to lay siege to Veracruz. The city was taken with artillery, and Scott moved on to Mexico City. On the way he took one of Mexico’s largest cities, Pueblo. Although Santa Anna was aware of the American plans, he was unable to offer meaningful resistance: his army was too weak and the local population, who disliked the dictator, often aided the enemy troops. In September 1847 the American army entered Mexico City.

Although the Mexican army laid down its arms, guerrilla warfare continued for some time in the country. Some actions by Mexican patriots were very successful, but still the war was lost.

Santa Anna resigned the presidency and immediately left the country. On February 2, 1848, a peace treaty was signed ending the American-Mexican War.

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